Learning Theory and Phobias

Learning Theory and Phobias Phobias Causes Print Learning Theory and Phobias By Lisa Fritscher Lisa Fritscher is a freelance writer and editor with a deep interest in phobias and other mental health topics. Learn about our editorial policy Lisa Fritscher Updated on February 21, 2020 SDI Productions/Getty Images More in Phobias Causes Symptoms and Diagnosis Treatment Types Learning theory is a broad term that includes multiple theories of behavior that are based on the learning process. Learning theory is rooted in the work of Ivan Pavlov, who was able to train dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell. Many treatments for phobias are based on these learning theories. Behaviorism Behaviorism is a learning theory that tries to explain human behavior and responses in terms of learned behaviors. This thought originated with Ivan Pavlov and his theory known as classical conditioning. The dogs’ salivation was an automatic response to the presence of meat. By pairing the presentation of the meat with the ringing of a bell, Pavlov was able to condition the dogs to respond to a new stimulus (the bell). Eventually, the dogs salivated when they heard the bell, even when the meat was not present. B.F. Skinner elaborated on Pavlov’s theory. His work introduced operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, behavior that is reinforced continues, while behavior that is punished or not reinforced is eventually stopped. Both reinforcement and punishment can be either negative or positive, depending on whether a positive or negative reward is being given or taken away. Today, reinforcement is seen as more effective than punishment in changing behavior. In terms of phobia treatment, behavioral strategies might involve forming new, more positive associations with feared objects or situations. For example, a person might practice relaxation techniques when they are exposed to what they fear. Eventually, the association with the relaxation response may replace the anxiety response. Cognitive Theory Cognitive theory focuses on an individuals thoughts as a crucial determinate of his or her emotions and behaviors. Our responses make sense within our own view of the world. Therefore, according to cognitive theory, it is important to change a person’s thoughts and beliefs in order to change his or her behaviors.  Information processing is how this mental process is commonly described with reference to phobias. According to cognitive theory, irrational responses are the result of automatic thoughts and erroneous beliefs. Cognitive reframing is a technique that is used to help the client examine his or beliefs and develop healthier ways of viewing the situation. Techniques such as thought stopping are used to help the individual stop automatic thoughts and replace them with new thoughts. Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory is a variation on cognitive theory that addresses the effects that others have on our behavior. According to the principles of social cognitive theory, people learn not only through their own experiences but also by watching others. Whether or not people act on what they have learned depends on many factors, including how strongly they identify with the model, their perception of the consequences of the behavior, and their beliefs about their own ability to change old patterns. Social cognitive theory may help to explain the origin of many phobias. It can also be used to help treat phobias. A common technique is for the therapist to model a new behavior before asking the individual to perform it. Cognitive-Behaviorism Cognitive-behavioral theory is a blended theory that incorporates both cognitive and behavioral elements. According to cognitive-behaviorism, our responses are based on a complex interaction between thoughts and behaviors, with thoughts and feelings playing a major role in our behavior. Modern cognitive-behaviorism also incorporates elements of feeling-based learning theories, such as rational-emotive theory. According to these principles, we are complex human beings whose responses are based on ongoing interactions between our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. It is necessary to address all of these components in order to successfully change our reactions. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is currently the most popular method of therapy for treating phobias. This is a type of brief therapy in which successful results may sometimes be achieved in only a few sessions. This is important to many people whose health insurance plans may limit the number of visits they can make to a therapist per year. Which Learning Theory Is Most Popular for Addressing Phobias? As noted above, the most popular therapy for treating phobias at the current time is the blended theory of cognitive behavior therapy. This theory addresses the complex thoughts and feelings which interact to determine a particular behavior. This approach, as noted, is likely also the most rapid approach to addressing phobias, something important not only due to health care costs but in helping people cope with these sometimes difficult to treat concerns.

Grocery Shopping Is More Diversified And Evolved Than Ever...

Grocery shopping is more diversified and evolved than ever before. Whole Foods Market and Trader Joe’s have become household names while also innovating beyond regional and national traditional chains. Despite comparable size in terms of locations, each store’s growth has operated using a very different model. Also in comparison, the unassuming supermarket Roots also specializes in organic, fair trade and minimally processed natural foods but on a smaller scale. As Whole Foods has increased the number of retail centers that it operates, it has suffered accompanying growing pains in efficiently managing distribution of products to its stores. They are growing at such a fast rate that the chain struggle to keep up with the demand for products and to keep shelves stocked. The biggest reason for inefficiency is Whole Foods’ decentralized back-end. It has 12 geographic divisions, a national headquarters in Austin, regional distribution centers, bakery facilities, kitchens, seafood processing facilities, meat and produce procurement centers and a specialty coffee/tea procurement operation. Many scoff at its supply chain, considering it to be amateur and lacking in professionalism. But with ample margins, it does not face immediate pressure to enhance efficiencies. Product wise, Whole Foods is differentiated because all products are sourced locally. The stores operate under minimal governance and are given maximum freedom to source a product mix that is appropriate for theirShow MoreRelatedBasic Info About Tesco Malaysia2175 Words   |  9 PagesIpoh in January and Shah Alam in July 2005. We have also launched Tesco Banting, Tesco Express Selayang, Ipoh Kuantan in 2005. Tesco offers Malaysians a complete one stop shopping for their needs - fresh food to groceries from household needs to apparel. Tesco carries a total of 86,000 lines of products including more than 1,300 Tesco branded items. Tesco was founded in 1924. Over the past 81 years, as the retailing market has changed, the company has grown and developed, responding to new opportunitiesRead MoreTrader Joe’s vs. Whole Foods Market5259 Words   |  22 PagesMIT Students Trader Joe’s vs. Whole Foods Market: A Comparison of Operational Management 15.768 Management of Services: Concepts, Design, and Delivery 1 Grocery shopping is more diversified and evolved than ever before. Individuals across the nation have access to everything from exotic products to unique delivery services. Often, specialty stores have limited locations whereas specialty services have a limited reach. 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Apart from physical trading in store, most supermarket businesses also operate online, given the most of chance to reachRead MoreLidl Norway30015 Words   |  121 PagesDepartment  of  Economics  and  Business  Administration      i            ii      Abstract   When  talking  to  a  Norwegian  about  Lidl,  most   people  will  have  a  strong  opinion  about   the  company.  Ã‚  Some  will  tell  you  that  Lidl  was  a  positive  contributor  to  the  Norwegian   grocery  market,  because  of  their  low  prices  and  Ã¢â‚¬Å"exotic†Ã‚  products.  Some  will  tell  you  that   they  never  shopped  there,  because  they  didn’t  want  to  support  a  foreign  company  that   ignored  the  labor  unions,  build  large  and  unattractive  buildings  in  their  townsRead MoreBrick and Mortar Retail vs. E-Commerce. What Is the Solution?5704 Words   |  23 Pagesthe differences between brick and mortar retail and e-commerce followed by a description of what the final solution is to solve this problem. 2. Introduction In a world where technology is changing every day, traditional businesses are becoming more developed and taking advantage of the many positive attributes that e-commerce can offer. While traditional businesses (brick and mortars) have recently been faced with stiff competition from e-commerce; traditional firms are attempting to surviveRead MoreConsumer Behavior Towards Online Shopping18477 Words   |  74 PagesCONSUMER BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS ONLINE SHOPPING (E-Shopping) Submitted To, L.J. Institute of Business Administration Vastrapur, Ahmedabad Project Guide, Prof. Saurin Shah Submitted by Name Roll No. 1. Siddharth Iyer 47 2. Raj Joisar 55 3. Keval Amreliya 05 4. Dhanraj Solanki 145 5. Akash Gupta 43 6. Simpy Harwani 45 7.Read MoreMarketing Nivea4249 Words   |  17 Pageson how Nivea uses the various marketing strategies to improve their sales, create a brand name and promote their products. Its starts with a brief introduction of what Nivea is. It further goes on to give the history of Nivea, and how Nivea has evolved ever since. The report further goes on to explain how Nivea uses the four P’s of marketing that is product, price, place and promotion by giving the example of Nivea Visage Young range of products. Next in the report is a brief explanation about howRead MoreMarketing Nivea4238 Words   |  17 Pageson how Nivea uses the various marketing strategies to improve their sales, create a brand name and promote their products. Its starts with a brief introduction of what Nivea is. It further goes on to give the history of Nivea, and how Nivea has evolved ever since. 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Ancient History Glossary Emperor Chin

Definition: Emperor Chin shih huang-ti was the first Chin (Qin) Dynasty emperor for which reason people call him simply the First Emperor. Appraisals of this 3rd century B.C. emperor vary. Some consider his government unprincipled, and him, a violent, superstitious ruler who ordered a bibliocaust. He condemned Confucianism and other schools of thought, save Legalism, which supported his imperial position. They say he buried alive Confucian scholars and artisans working on his funeral complex. Others praise him as a peace-bringing political and legal unifier, who built roads to handle the standard distance between carriage wheels, and started the Great Wall; a reformer, who standardized coinage, weights and measures, and the written language. Like the early Egyptian pharaohs, the first Chinese emperor expended prodigious resources provisioning the afterlife, including a subterranean palace and an enormous terra cotta army complete with life size, realistic, painted warriors, chariots and horses. Even the treadmarking on shoe bottoms was fastidiously individualized. A docent at the 2012 exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Art (Chinas Terracotta Warriors - The First Emperors Legacy) says the warriors are about six feet tall, which might seem tall as an average for the modern Chinese male, but is considered to be life size for these descendants of Steppe denizens. [See: What Armor Did the Qin Dynasty Warriors Wear?] Reign Originally called Ying Zheng, Emperor Chin was born in 260 B.C. and died in 210. His reign as king of the more than 500-year old state of Qin had started when he was only 13. Having unified the warring states, Chin became emperor of a unified China in 221 B.C. His rule as emperor had lasted for 12 years when he died at the age of 49. When he died, his body was covered by fish to disguise the odor and to delay news until his body arrived back home -- according to legend. Rebellion followed soon after. Weak successors followed, so his dynasty lasted only another three years. Warring States Emperor Chin put an end to the Warring States period in ancient Chinese history, which ran from about 475-221 B.C. It was a period of violence and chaos during which the philosopher Sun-Tzu -- called the author of The Art of War -- is said to have lived. Culture flourished. There were seven states of China during the Warring States period (Chin Qi Chu Yan, Han, Zhao, and Wei). Two of these states, the Chin and Chu (which had, incidentally, incorporated Confucius home state of Lu, in 249), came to dominate, and in 223, the Chin defeated the Chu, establishing the first unified Chinese state two years later, in the 26th year of King Chengs reign. (As first emperor of all China, King Cheng became known as Emperor Chin.) Historical and Archaeological Sources on Emperor Chin In 213 B.C., three years before Emperor Chin died, Chin ordered a book burning (bibliocaust) that was to destroy much of the historical record of earlier periods. Chin documents were probably destroyed in a palace complex-burning, by Hsiang Yu, in 208, two years after the first emperors death. Archaeological remains of the tomb of the first emperor, including the famous terra cotta army of more than 7000 men, and legal documents were found in the 1970s when farmers dug up unexpected quantities of pottery. Another source of information on Emperor Chin is the Shih chi (Historical Records), written by Han dynasty historian Ssu-ma Chien in around 100 B.C. This same historian and storyteller, also called Sima Qian, wrote a biography of the sage Confucius (Kongzi) Periods of Ancient China Also Known As: Chin shih huang-ti, Qin or Qin Shihuangdi, Cheng Alternate Spellings: Chin Shih Huang, Qin Shi Huangdi, Qin Shih Huang-ti, Qin Shihuang Examples: Chairman Mao, the famous leader of the Communist Party in China, who was in power when farmers unearthed the artifacts of the Emperor Chin in 1974, is credited with the following words or sentiments: What can Emperor Qin Shi Huang brag about? He only killed 460 Confucian scholars, but we killed 46,000 intellectuals. In our suppression of counter-revolutionaries, didnt we kill some counter-revolutionary intellectuals as well? I argued with the pro-democratic people who accused us of acting like Emperor Qin Shi Huang. I said they were wrong. We surpassed him by a hundred times.The Epoch Times Commentaries on the Communist Party References: New Scientist Nov 16, 1978Imperial Rulership and Cultural Change in Traditional China, by Frederick Paul Brandauer, Junjie Huang; (1994).Encyclopedia BritannicaThe Oxford Companion to Military History.Minneapolis Institute of Arts: Chinas Terracotta Warriors - The First Emperors LegacyChinese History (Mark Bender at Ohio State University) Go to Other Ancient / Classical History Glossary pages beginning with the letter a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | s | t | u | v | wxyz

In Construction Final Report Free Essays

Through this search we are able to identify analyze the factors through which small construction companies can gain competitive advantage over their close competitors. Also studied various Project Management techniques that can foster growth of small and developing companies in this sector. This report also identifies the upcoming opportunities that the small and budding companies have in the construction industry. We will write a custom essay sample on In Construction Final Report or any similar topic only for you Order Now Lastly, it also talks about the key hindrances faced by Indian construction companies in running their operations with suggestions to overcome them. Introduction The Construction industry of India is an important indicator of the placement as it creates investment opportune ties across various related sectors. The construction industry contributed an estimated RSI. 7,807 billion to the national GAP in 2013-14 which amounted to around 9%. The industry is fragmented, with a handful of major companies involved in the construction activities across all segments. Besides, there are medium sized companies specializing in niche activities and small and medium contractors who work on the subcontractor basis and carry out the work in the field. In 2011 there were slightly over 500 construction equipment manufacturing companies in al of India The sector is labor intensive and provides employment, including indirect jobs, to more than 3. 5 core people. The period from 1950 to mid 1 ass’s witnessed the government playing an active role in the development of these services and most of construction activities during this period were carried out by State owned enterprises and supported by government departments. In the first five-year plan, construction of civil works was allotted nearly 50 % of the total capital outlay. The first professional consultancy company, National Industrial Development Corporation (MIND), was set up in the public sector in 1954. Subsequently, many architectural, design engineering and construction companies were set up in the public sector such as Indian Railways Construction Limited (RECON), National Buildings Construction Corporation (NBC), Rail India Transportation and Engineering Services (RITES), Engineers India Limited (ELL) etc. As well as the private sector such as M N ADSTAR and Co. , Hindustan Construction Company (HOC), Nasals etc. In India Construction has accounted for around 40 per cent of the development investment during the past 50 years. Around 16 per cent of the nation’s working population depends on construction for its livelihood and rates assets worth over 200 billion per annum. Total capital expenditure of state and central government was approximately RSI. 8,021 billion in 2011-12 which rose from RSI. L ,436 billion in 1999-2000. The share of the Indian construction sector in total gross capital formation (GIF) came down from 60 per cent in 1970-71 to 34 per cent in 1990-91. Thereafter, it increased to 48 per cent in 1993-94 and stood at 44 per cent in 1999-2000. In the 21st century, there has been an increase in the share of the construction sector in GAP and capital formation. The main reason for this is the increasing emphasis on involving the private sector infrastructure development through public private partnerships (Peps) and mechanisms like build-operate-transfer (BOOT). LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction to the Indian Construction Industry The Construction Industry in India is the second largest employer of the country after agriculture, accounting for 1 1 % of Indian’s GAP. It employs more than 3. 5 scores people its total market size is estimated at RSI. scores. The level Of a country’s development is reflected by its infrastructure the desperate need for infrastructure development has increased the demand of the construction industry in India. The Indian Construction industry can be divided into three broad segments: Residential, Industrial, Commercial other buildings. Sewer, Roads, Highways, Bridges, Tunnels other projects. Specialized activity such as carpentry, painting, plumbing electrical work. Characteristics of the Indian Construction Industry Construction industry is a major job creator: The construction industry accounts for 1 1 % of Indian’s gross domestic product (GAP). The industry also generates huge employment opportunities, due to its constant requirement for skilled and unskilled laborers. Moreover, the overall growth of this industry is also positive for sectors such as steel and cement, which are key raw materials. Low entry barriers keep industry fragmented: The construction industry is highly fragmented as low fixed capital requirements for construction contracts remove entry barriers. Capital expenditure is only required for procuring necessary equipments unlike a manufacturing businesses, which require a setup of plants and machinery for production. Possibility of payment delays heightens working capital intensity: Construction projects are mainly funded and managed by the owner. Apart from the initial advance, contractors receive payments after each project lessons is completed. However, timely payments also depend on the owner’s credit profile and the nature of the project. Most projects, especially infrastructure, have a gestation period of more than a year. Any delay in payments can push up receivables. Such a scenario makes the construction industry working capital intensive. Projects awarded to lowest bidders, but execution skills crucial too: All governmental construction projects are awarded through a competitive bidding process as more domestic and international contractors have forayed into various infrastructure segments. The project is finally awarded to the sweets bidder. However, besides bidding qualifications, contractors also need to have strong project execution and technical skills to avoid cost and time overruns. To make these imperative, institutions such as National Highways Authority of India (NOAH) penalizes delayed execution of national highway projects, while awarding timely completion of the same. Input-related risks: Access to inputs is crucial for ensuring timely and cost- effective execution of projects. The major inputs for a construction include: 1 . Labor: Construction work involves both skilled and unskilled labor. Currently, instruction players are struggling with wage increases, which can be attributed to labor shortages and rising inflation. Local job opportunities from government welfare schemes, growth in the overall rural economy and migration of laborers to Gulf countries for better prospects are some reasons that have led to a shortage of construction laborers. To solve labor issues, improve quality and cut wage costs, construction companies are now increasing the extent of mechanization, particularly in huge infrastructure projects such as highway projects. . Raw material: The construction industry is raw material-intensive. Any change in prices of raw materials like steel, cement, bitumen etc. Impacts players’ profitability. However, the impact is limited to the extent of the proportion of fixed price contracts in a company’s order book. Some construction companies also own quarries so as to ensure constant raw material supply. 3. Land acquisition and government clearanc es: Land and the related government clearances are the other important inputs for construction work. Delays in these may increase the gestation period of projects, which can impact the profitability of the project. Recent developments in the Indian Construction Industry The Indian government has recently initiated some policy changes in some sectors of the industry and order inflows have improved in some others. Though, the strained financial position Of companies will continue to impact the industry’s execution pace in 2014-15. It is therefore expected that the industry’s revenues will grow at a tepid pace of 6% to 8% during the year. The poor financial position of construction companies is reflected in their poorly profitable and highly leveraged balance sheets. Operating margins of construction companies fell by about in 2012-13, as input costs rose ND lower margin segments such as road projects gained share in the order book. Competitive pressures have also been impacting margins. Slow execution and its impact on fixed cost of companies shaved off 5% to on an average, from the operating margins of companies in 2013-14. In order to protect their margins, players are now exercising more caution in bidding and competition in the industry has moderated. Yet, the hangover of aggressive bidding of the past and the current execution delays continue to weigh on profitability in 2014-15 also. Further, the gearing (Debt-Equity ratio) f construction companies has been rising over the past two years, impacting the financial flexibility of companies. Gearing of major construction companies rose to 3. 3 times in 2012-13, from 2. 1 times in 2008-09. Net margins, which had been sliding since 2010-11, fell further by 7% in 2012-13 owing to higher interest outgo. The industry (with the only exception of LT) reported net losses from April 2013 to October 2013. According to the twelfth five year plan, more than 40% of the total government spends have been allocated to construction per SE explicitly, along with various construction projects that will be undertaken for other areas of expenditure. The table below illustrates the sector wise investments for the twelfth five year plan. Five Forces Analysis of the Indian Construction Industry Us mammary: The construction and engineering industry is characterized by large incumbents operating alongside smaller companies. Rivalry is eased somewhat by companies diversifying operations into other sectors. There are a small numbers of buyers in this industry, and typically large in size. Similarly suppliers have a great deal of power over market players as their raw materials are essential for players’ businesses. However suppliers have also offered the effects of the global economic crisis, seeing the prices of many raw materials rise. There are few, if any, substitutes available in this industry. Bargaining power of Buyers: Buyers in this industry tend to be large and few in number. Typically the main buyers are government agencies or large private-sector customers, usually corporate rather than individuals. Generally, in this industry, customers invite market players to tender for contracts which are on the customers’ terms. This means the buyer is in a more powerful position as they specifically define the parameters of the project. How to cite In Construction Final Report, Papers

The Station Nightclub Fire

This fire occurred on February 21, 2003 and caused a death toll of 100 people in that club. 96 people died on that night whereas the remaining four succumbed to death while undergoing treatment in hospitals in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Investigations carried out revealed that interior finish of the club played made fire ignite easily as well, as spread rapidly within the building.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Station Nightclub Fire specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The investigation also revealed that the presence of combustible interior finish in the area where fire started affected the capability of those inside to egress the building when fire broke out. It is believed, that fire brought conditions that hindered people from reaching the exits, which made them, be overcome by heat and smoke. Pyrotechnics got considered the initial cause of fire in the Station club. This is because in the ev ening that this fire broke out pyrotechnic devices referred to as garbs are the ones, which got activated in the middle of plat form. This latter turned into flames, which spread fast leading to spread of fire allover the place (Duwal 14-18). Following these causes of fire, NFPA codes were modified to curb further deaths that may result from such fires. Some of these changes were as following: NFPA 1126, which stress on use of pyrotechnics and their standards. This code states that pyrotechnics, as well as open flame devices, are not to be used assembly occupancy places. It says that if they have to be used then they have to compile with standards set out in NFPA 1126. There is also need to ensure no ignition occurs of every combustible substance. Every assembly place was required to ensure there is a main exit and entrance. This exit and entrance will be of width capable to accommodate one- half of the people within the building and should connect to a stairway, which lead to a str eet. New nightclubs were mandated to install fire sprinklers as in the case with assembly occupancies such as dance halls, bars and festival seating according to NFPA 101, 12.3. Building owners are required to have a look at all building egress, make sure there are no obstructions, and keep track of maintenance records of these egresses functioning condition.Advertising Looking for research paper on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A well-trained crowd manager should be present for all gatherings except the religious gathering. Incase the gathering is large then two managers are required to be present. Crowds exceeding 200 persons should not be provided by chairs. They are supposed to use festival seating whereby they sit on floor unless a life safety evaluation has been approved by the authority concerned. The main entrance and exit for new night clubs was adjusted from one-half to two third of the occup ants inside the nightclub. Other exits and entrances should be able to hold not less than one-half of total occupant loads. These other exits should have access to main entrances and exits. Any decorative materials must be constituent with NFPA requirements and any nightclub willing to decorate its premise must use only decorative materials approved by NFPA. Failure to comply with this will lead to heavy fine and even closure of the nightclub. The clubs doors should always be ajar and open on the outside. Fire alarms should be connected to the nearest fire fighting stations and should be audible enough for all to hear. Nightclub and other building owners should comply with fire prevention measures not only when applying for certificates after construction but at all times. Works Cited Duwal, Robert. â€Å"NFPA Case Study: Nightclub Fires.† NFPA Journal (2006): 14-18. Print. This research paper on The Station Nightclub Fire was written and submitted by user Brian Neal to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Eleanor Maccaoby

Eleanor Maccoby is a renowned psychologist, with publications dating from 1957 to today. She specializes on the socialization of children, developmental change in personality and behavior, relationships of couples after divorce, and parent-child interactions. In this review I focus on her work examining the socialization of children, and parent-child interactions. I link her work between the socialization of children, from their interactions with their parents and with other children, to the interactions of adults. There is a clear parallel between the sex-typed skills learned in child-interactions and those conveyed in adult interactions. Parent–Child Interactions Maccoby looks at the development of gender through interaction: â€Å"social behavior is never a function of the individual alone. It is the function of the interaction between two or more persons† (Maccoby 1990). Maccoby’s earlier work dealt with parental effects on children’s gender identity, focusing on the sex stereotypes that parents instill in their children through interaction. Rothbart and Maccoby (1966) studied parents’ reactions to specific child behaviors, especially those regarded as sex-typed, like dependency and aggression, in hopes of understanding what accounts for sex differences in behavior. Social-learning theory addresses the finding, that girls display more dependent behaviors than boys, and boys display more aggressive behaviors than girls. And that dependent behaviors are less rewarded for males, just as aggressive behaviors are less rewarded for females (Rothbart and Maccoby 1966). Using social-learning theory, and assuming that the family constitutes the â€Å"culture† into which a young child is exposed, Rothbart and Maccoby (1966) predicted that both parents would reinforce dependency more strongly in girls, and aggression more strongly in boys. Rothbart Maccoby (1966) tested their prediction by placing parents in a hypotheti... Free Essays on Eleanor Maccaoby Free Essays on Eleanor Maccaoby Eleanor Maccoby is a renowned psychologist, with publications dating from 1957 to today. She specializes on the socialization of children, developmental change in personality and behavior, relationships of couples after divorce, and parent-child interactions. In this review I focus on her work examining the socialization of children, and parent-child interactions. I link her work between the socialization of children, from their interactions with their parents and with other children, to the interactions of adults. There is a clear parallel between the sex-typed skills learned in child-interactions and those conveyed in adult interactions. Parent–Child Interactions Maccoby looks at the development of gender through interaction: â€Å"social behavior is never a function of the individual alone. It is the function of the interaction between two or more persons† (Maccoby 1990). Maccoby’s earlier work dealt with parental effects on children’s gender identity, focusing on the sex stereotypes that parents instill in their children through interaction. Rothbart and Maccoby (1966) studied parents’ reactions to specific child behaviors, especially those regarded as sex-typed, like dependency and aggression, in hopes of understanding what accounts for sex differences in behavior. Social-learning theory addresses the finding, that girls display more dependent behaviors than boys, and boys display more aggressive behaviors than girls. And that dependent behaviors are less rewarded for males, just as aggressive behaviors are less rewarded for females (Rothbart and Maccoby 1966). Using social-learning theory, and assuming that the family constitutes the â€Å"culture† into which a young child is exposed, Rothbart and Maccoby (1966) predicted that both parents would reinforce dependency more strongly in girls, and aggression more strongly in boys. Rothbart Maccoby (1966) tested their prediction by placing parents in a hypotheti...

The History of Corinthian Columns

The History of Corinthian Columns The word Corinthian describes an ornate column style developed in ancient Greece and classified as one of the Classical Orders of Architecture. The Corinthian style is more complex and elaborate than the earlier Doric and Ionic Orders. The capital or top part of a Corinthian style column has lavish ornamentation carved to resemble leaves and flowers. Roman architect Vitruvius observed that the delicate Corinthian design was produced out of the two other orders. He described the Corinthian column as an imitation of the slenderness of a maiden; for the outlines and limbs of maidens, being more slender on account of their tender years, admit of prettier effects in the way of adornment. Because of their opulence, Corinthian columns are rarely used as common porch columns for the ordinary home. The style is more suited for Greek Revival mansions and public architecture such as government buildings, especially courthouses. Characteristics of Corinthian columns include: Fluted (grooved) shaftsCapitals (the tops of each shaft) decorated with  acanthus leaves and flowers and sometimes small scrollsCapital ornaments that flare outward like bells, suggesting a sense of heightProportion; Vitruvius tells us that the height of their capitals gives them proportionately a taller and more slender effect than Ionic columns Why Are They Called Corinthian Columns? In the worlds first architecture textbook, De architectura (30 B.C.), Vitruvius tells the story of a young girl from the city-state of Corinth. A free-born maiden of Corinth, just of marriageable age, was attacked by an illness and passed away, writes Vitruvius. She was buried with a basket of her favorite things atop her tomb, near the root of an acanthus tree. That spring, leaves and stalks grew up through the basket, creating a delicate explosion of natural beauty. The effect caught the eye of a passing sculptor named Callimachus, who began to incorporate the intricate design onto column capitals. Because the sculptor found this design in Corinth, the columns that bear it became known as Corinthian columns. West of Corinth in Greece is the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae, thought to be the oldest surviving example of the Classical Corinthian column. This temple from about 425 B.C. is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The Tholos (a round building) at Epidauros (c. 350 B.C.) is thought to be one of the first structures to use a colonnade of Corinthian columns. Archaeologists have determined the tholos to have 26 exterior Doric columns and 14 interior Corinthian columns. The Temple of Olympian Zeus (175 B.C.) in Athens is said to have had more than 100 Corinthian columns. Are All Corinthian Capitals the Same? No, not all Corinthian capitals are exactly alike, but they are characterized by their leafy flowers. The capitals of Corinthian columns are more ornamented and delicate than the tops of other column types. They can easily deteriorate over time, especially when they are used outdoors. Early Corinthian columns were used primarily for interiors spaces, and thus were protected from the elements. The Monument of Lysikrates (c. 335 B.C.) in Athens features some of the earliest examples of exterior Corinthian columns. Replacing deteriorated Corinthian capitals must be done by master craftsmen. During the 1945 bombing of Berlin, the royal palace was heavily damaged, and it was later demolished in the 1950s. With the reunification of East and West Berlin, the palace was reinvented. Sculptors used old photographs to recreate the architectural details in the new facade, in clay and in plaster, noting that not all of the Corinthian capitals were the same. Architectural Styles That Use Corinthian Columns The Corinthian column and the Corinthian Order were created in ancient Greece. Ancient Greek and Roman architecture is collectively known as Classical, and so Corinthian columns are found in Classical architecture. The Arch of Constantine (A.D. 315) in Rome and the Ancient Library of Celsus in Ephesus feature examples of Corinthian columns in Classical architecture. Classical architecture was reborn during the Renaissance in the 15th and 16th centuries. Later derivatives of Classical architecture include the Neoclassical, Greek Revival, and Neoclassical Revival architectures of the 19th century, and the Beaux Arts architecture of the American Gilded Age. Thomas Jefferson was influential in bringing the Neoclassical style to America, as seen in the Rotunda at The University of Virginia in Charlottesville. Corinthian-like designs can also be found in some Islamic architecture. The distinctive capital of the Corinthian column comes in many forms, but the acanthus leaf appears in most designs. Professor Talbot Hamlin suggests that Islamic architecture was influenced by the acanthus leaf design: Many mosques, like those at Kairouan and Cordova, used actual ancient Corinthian capitals; and later Moslem capitals were often based on the Corinthian scheme in general pattern, although the tendency toward abstraction gradually removed all remaining signs of realism from the carving of the leaves. Famous Buildings With Corinthian Columns In the United States, famous buildings with Corinthian columns include the U.S. Supreme Court Building, the U.S. Capitol, and the National Archives Building, all of which are in Washington, D.C. In New York City, buildings with these columns include the New York Stock Exchange Building on Broad Street in Lower Manhattan and the James A. Farley Building, which is across the street from Penn Station and Madison Square Garden. In Rome, check out the Pantheon and the Colosseum, where Doric columns are on the first level, Ionic columns on the second, and Corinthian columns on the third. Great Renaissance cathedrals throughout Europe are apt to show off their Corinthian columns, including St. Pauls Cathedral and St Martin-in-the-Fields in London.